My Comments on my friends blog "Morpho-Syntax"

My Comments on my friends blog "Semantics"

The Branches of Semantics "Idiom"

An idiom (also called idiomatic expression) is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning conventionally understood by native speakers. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase is understood as to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries. This meaning is different from the literal meaning of the idiom's individual elements. In other words, idioms don't mean exactly what the words say. They have, however, hidden meaning.

Idiom Examples

 

Example 1 :

“Every cloud has its silver lining but it is sometimes a little difficult to get it to the mint.”

The statement quoted above uses “silver lining” as an idiom which means some auspicious moment is lurking behind the cloud or the difficult time.

Example 2 :

“American idioms drive me up the hall!”

Here, the word “idioms” is used as an idiom.

Example 3 :

“I worked the graveyard shift with old people, which was really demoralizing, because the old people didn’t have a chance in hell of ever getting out.”

In the extract quoted above, “graveyard shift” is employed as an idiom.

Example 4 :

“As happy as a clam”

Mary was happy as a clam on the day of her wedding.

Meaning : Pleased, very content

Origin : So why in the world would a clam ever be happy? They're shellfish, they don't have feelings. The expression most likely began because when a clam's shell is opened up, it does look like the clam is smiling.

Other Example :

“A hot potato”

Speak of an issue (mostly current) which many people are talking about and which is usually disputed

“A penny for your thoughts”

A way of asking what someone is thinking

“Actions speak louder than words”

People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say.

“Add insult to injury”

To further a loss with mockery or indignity; to worsen an unfavorable situation.

“An arm and a leg”

Very expensive or costly. A large amount of money.

“At the drop of a hat”

Meaning: without any hesitation; instantly.

“Back to the drawing board”

When an attempt fails and it's time to start all over.

“Ball is in your court”

It is up to you to make the next decision or step

“Barking up the wrong tree”

Looking in the wrong place. Accusing the wrong person

Functions of Idiom

Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose behind this vast use of idioms is to ornate their language, make it richer and spicier and help them in conveying subtle meanings to their intended audience. Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also make things better or worse through making the expression good or bad.

For example, there are several idioms that convey the death of a person in highly subtle meanings and some do the same in very offensive terms. They are also said to be exact and more correct than the literal words and sometimes a few words are enough to replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer than it is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through minimum words and also keep the multiplicity of the meanings in the text intact.

It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings but also convey a phenomenon that is not being conveyed through normal and everyday language and also they keep the balance in the communication. Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so that the reader could be able to piece together a text that he has gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.

References :

http://literarydevices.net/idiom/

http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/vocabulary-lesson-idioms.php

http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-an-idiom-definition-examples-quiz.html

http://www.smart-words.org/quotes-sayings/idioms-meaning.html

The Branches of Semantics "Proverb"

Proverb is a brief, simple and popular saying, or a phrase that gives advice and effectively embodies a commonplace truth based on practical experience or common sense. A proverb may have an allegorical message behind its odd appearance. The reason of popularity is due to its usage in spoken language as well as in the folk literature. Some authors twist and bend proverbs and create anti-proverbs to add literary effects to their works. However, in poetry, poets use proverbs strategically by employing some parts of them in poems’ titles such as Lord Kennet has written a poem, A Bird in the Bush, which is a popular proverb. Some poems contain multiple proverbs like Paul Muldoon’s poem Symposium.

A. Function of Proverb

Proverbs play very important roles in different types of literary works. The most important function of proverbs is to teach and educate the audience. They often contain an expert advice with a role for educating the readers on what they may face if they would do something. Hence, proverbs play a didactic role, as they play a universal role in teaching wisdom and sagacity to the common people. Since proverbs are usually metaphorical and indirect; therefore, they allow writers to express their message in a less harsh way.

B. Examples of Proverbs in Literature

 

Example 1 :

From William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet

“The weakest goes to the wall.”
The weak people are never favored.
“He that is strucken blind cannot forget
The precious treasure of his eyesight lost.”
A man who loses his eyesight can never forget the importance of lost eyesight.
“One fire burns out another’s burning,
One pain is lessen’d by another’s anguish.”

You can burn new fire from lightening another fire, similarly a new pain could mitigate your old pain.

Example 2 :

From The Bible

“The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction.” (1:7)
Wise men always fear the Lord, while fools do not like wisdom and guidance.
“Every word of God is flawless; He is a shield to those who take refuge in him.” (30:5)
Saying of the God are never flawed, He protect them who ask for His help and follows His path.
“Commit to the LORD whatever you do, and he will establish your plans.” (16:3)

Do your efforts then put faith in Lord for the results, for He knows better and give you reward accordingly.

C. Proverbs Throughout the World

African Proverbs

Across the vast continent of Africa, many African nations disseminated proverbs that were meant to educate and inspire those who used them.

Here are a few examples of African proverbs :

a)    “A tree is known by its fruit” – (of Zulu origin - this means that success is shown by the deeds.)

b)    “I have been bitten by a tsetse fly” – (of Tanzanian origin – this means that a person will continuously be a pest until you pay off a debt.)

c)    “The word of friend makes you cry – the word of an enemy makes you laugh” – (of Algeria, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger – this means that a friend will tell you the truth and sometimes the truth hurts, whereas an enemy will only lead you down the wrong path by giving you advice that seems good but is not.)

Asian Proverbs

Some examples of Asian proverbs include the following :

a)    “The old horse in the stable still yearns to run” – (this means that those who are older still have things they would like to accomplish.)

b)   “A spark can start a fire that burns the entire prairie” – (this means that a small problem can snowball into a huge problem that can cause major damage.)

c)    “Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime” – (this means that teaching people is better in the long run because it gives them the skills to provide for themselves as opposed to you doing things for them.) 

American Proverbs

Some examples of American based proverbs include :

a)    "Absence makes the heart grow fonder” – (this means that when you separate from someone that you love by putting distance between you that you will inevitably love them more and yearn to see them.)

b)   "All that glitters is not gold” – (this means that just because something looks good, does not necessarily mean that it is good.)

c)    "A monkey in silk is a monkey no less” – (this means that just because someone dresses fancy does not necessarily mean that they are fancy or of good character.)

English Proverbs

Some examples of English proverbs include :

a)    Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.

b)   It’s no use locking the stable door after the horse has bolted.

c)    Laugh and the world laughs with you, weep and you weep alone.

d)   See a pin and pick it up, all the day you’ll have good luck; see a pin and let it lie, bad luck you’ll have all day.

e)    ‘Tis better to have loved and lost, than never to have loved at all.

f)    Monday’s child is fair of face/Tuesday’s child is full of grace,/Wednesday’s child is full of woe,/Thursday’s child has far to go,/Friday’s child is loving and giving,/Saturday’s child works hard for its living/And a child that’s born on the Sabbath day/Is fair and wise and good and gay.

Proverbs from Other Countries

a)    Arabic Proverb: An army of sheep led by a lion would defeat an army of lions led by a sheep.

b)   Finnish proverb: Even a small star shines in the darkness.

c)    Italian Proverb: After the game, the king and pawn go into the same box.

d)   Jewish Proverb: God could not be everywhere and therefore he made mothers.

e)    Russian Proverb: Better to stumble than make a slip of the tongue.

f)    Spanish Proverb: Since we cannot get what we like, let us like what we can get.

D. Role of Proverbs in Society

Proverbs play many roles in society. The first, possibly, most common role that a proverb plays is to educate. Most often tossed around as expert advice in conversation, the innate role to educate people on what might happen if they do something. Think of a proverb as a little tidbit of wisdom that just about everyone – no matter where they are from – can offer. There is a proverb for just about every circumstance, and proverbs can be applied to any situation. 

English and American proverbs are almost second nature when delivered. The origins are quite often little known, yet the expressions are popular. Ethnic proverbs, on the other hand, may be a little deeper to digest, and require non-natives of the proverb’s country of origin, to think about the meaning in order to better understand how it applies to their lives.

A proverb (from Latin: proverbium) is a simple and concrete saying, popularly known and repeated, that expresses a truth based on common sense or experience. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. Proverbs fall into the category of formulaic language.

Proverbs are often borrowed from similar languages and cultures, and sometimes come down to the present through more than one language. Both the Bible (including, but not limited to the Book of Proverbs) and medieval Latin (aided by the work of Erasmus) have played a considerable role in distributing proverbs across Europe. Mieder has concluded that cultures that treat the Bible as their "major spiritual book contain between three hundred and five hundred proverbs that stem from the Bible." However, almost every culture has examples of its own unique proverbs.

Examples :

a)    Haste makes waste

b)   A stitch in time saves nine

c)    Ignorance is bliss

d)   Mustn't cry over spilled milk.

e)    You can catch more flies with honey than you can with vinegar.

f)    You can lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink.

g)   Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

h)   A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

i)     Fortune favours the bold

j)     Well begun is half done.

References :

http://literarydevices.net/proverb/

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-proverbs.html

http://www.yourdictionary.com/proverb

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proverb

The Branches of Semantics "Ambiguity"

Ambiguity is the presence of two or more possible meanings in a single passage. In speech and writing, there are two basic types of ambiguity : 
(1) lexical ambiguity (the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single word) and,
(2) syntactic ambiguity (the presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words).
In addition, ambiguity is sometimes regarded as a fallacy (commonly known as equivocation) in which the same term is used in more than one way. 

Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.” Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g. “John took off his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank” which is a building, to another meaning, being “an edge of a river”. Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.

Ambiguity can be found in everyday conversation and in literature. A sentence can become ambiguous just by a single word, or by a misplaced statement. This is why it is so important to match correct phrasing while writing.

           

I. Common Ambiguity Examples

Below are some common examples of ambiguity :

a)    A good life depends on a liver – Liver may be an organ or simply a living person.

b)   Foreigners are hunting dogs – It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.

c)    Each of us saw her duck – It is not clear whether the word “duck” refers to an action of ducking or a duck that is a bird.

d)   The passerby helps dog bite victim – Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person bitten by a dog? It’s not clear.

II. Examples of Ambiguity in Literature

Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.

Example 1

Read the following excerpt from “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D. Salinger :

“I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty healthy though.”

The words “they” and “here” used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that “they” might be the professionals helping out Holden and “here” might be a rehabilitation center.

Example 2

“The Sick Rose”, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities :

“O Rose thou art sick.
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night
In the howling storm:
Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy;
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy”

Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what “crimson bed of joy” means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of “dark secret love”. The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem.

III. Function of Ambiguity

Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work.
By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to the readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

IV. Ambiguity in Conversation

The most common form of ambiguity is found in word choice. Most of the words in the English language have more than one definition. There are many nouns and adjectives that may have different meanings depending upon the usage. For example, the word 'break'. As a noun, it could mean an interruption, a piece of good luck, a separation, a pause, or a breaking of a bone. As a verb, it could mean to terminate, separate, move away, or scatter. These are just a few of the definitions. If not used correctly and clearly in the sentence, break could become an ambiguous word choice.

Like 'break', there are many words that can become ambiguous in conversation. Because of this, we hear ambiguity daily with each other, on television, even when reading newspapers or social media.

Here are some other ambiguous sentences :

We saw her duck.

1.      We looked at a duck that belonged to her.

2.      We looked at her quickly squat down to avoid something.

3.      We use a saw to cut her duck.

He fed her cat food.

1.      He fed a woman’s cat some food.

2.      He fed a woman some food that was intended for cats.

3.      He somehow encouraged some cat food to eat something.

Look at the dog with one eye.

1.      Look at the dog using only one of your eyes.

2.      Look at the dog that only has one eye.

References :

http://literarydevices.net/ambiguity/
http://www.yourdictionary.com/ambiguous

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ambiguous

http://www.byrdseed.com/ambiguous-sentences/

http://study.com/academy/lesson/ambiguity-in-literature-definition-examples-quiz.html

The Branches of Morphology "Antonomasia & Conversion"

ANTONOMASIA

Antonomasia is a rhetoric device where a word or phrase for a proper name is substituted for example when his majesty is used for a king. Conversely it also refers to the use of a proper name such when a wise man is called a Solomon or when an eminent scientist is called an Einstein. The word is from the Greek antonomasía, a derivative of antonomázein, “to call by a new name.”

 
Example 1

Imagine that you have a friend who is a fantastic chef, and you want to say hello.

Normal sentence :

“Oh, look! Sam’s arrived!”

Sentence with Antonomasia :

“Oh, look! The great chef has arrived!”

Here, the use of antonomasia allows you to greet your friend with a nickname which also reveals something about his character: he’s a great chef.

 
Example 2

For another example, consider that you have a grumpy teacher:

Normal sentence :

“He’s grumpy, boring, doesn’t want to listen to anyone, and definitely doesn’t want to help anyone.”

Sentence with Antonomasia :

“Mr. Grumps doesn’t want to listen to anyone, and definitely doesn’t want to help anyone.”

Replacing the teacher’s actual name with his defining characteristic, grumpiness, serves to highlight just how much the mood is associated with the man. 

Another Example :

a)    "The Little Corporal" for Napoleon I

b)   "His Majesty" for a king

c)    "Her Royal Highness" for a princess

d)   "Einstein" for a scientist

e)    "The Iron Duke" for the Duke of Wellington

The importance of using Antonomasia

Antonomasia can provide someone with a strongepithet which further celebrates and memorializes their great deeds. In advertising and pop culture, such wording can also further celebrate the famous, such as The Beatles as “The Fab Four.”

Figures of speech such as Antonomasia adds adornment, beautifies, colors, elegant variation, embellishment, embroidery, emphasis, exaggeration, exclamation, flourish, floweriness, irony, lushness and luxuriance to the English language. This page providing facts and info about Figures of Speech will help with the understanding of this subject. 

Examples of Antonomasia in Literature

Antonomasia is important in literature, as it can tell more about characters just by their titles. Consider a few examples :

One instance of antonomasia is the treatment of Voldemort in J.K.Rowling’s Harry Potter Series.Rather than calling the dangerous man by name, all must call him “You-Know-Who” or “He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named.” This usage of antonomasia emphasizes just how dangerous the man is, as most wizards and witches are too afraid to say his actual name aloud. 

Examples of Antonomasia in Pop Culture 

Antonomasia is rampant in pop culture, for who doesn’t like a good nickname?

Consider the following pop stars and their antonomasia :

1)   Michael Jackson as “The King of Pop”

2)   Madonna as “The Queen of Pop”

3)   Ella Fitzgerald as “The First Lady of Song”

4)   Bruce Springsteen as “The Boss”

5)   Aretha Franklin as “The Queen of Soul”

CONVERSION

Conversion is the word formation process in which a word of one grammatical form becomes a word of another grammatical form without any changes to spelling or pronunciation. For example, the noun email appeared in English before the verb: a decade ago I would have sent you an email (noun) whereas now I can either send you an email (noun) or simply email (verb) you. The original noun email experienced conversion, thus resulting in the new verb email.

Conversion is also referred to as zero derivation or null derivation with the assumption that the formal change between words results in the addition of an invisible morpheme. However, many linguistics argue for a clear distinction between the word formation processes of derivation and conversion.

1.    Noun to Verb Conversion

The most productive form of conversion in English is noun to verb conversion.

The following list provides examples of verbs converted from nouns :

Noun – Verb

a)    access – to access

b)   bottle – to bottle

c)    can – to can

d)   closet – to closet

e)    email – to email

f)    eye – to eye

g)   fiddle – to fiddle

h)   fool – to fool

i)     Google – to google

j)     host – to host

For example :

1)   My grandmother bottled (verb) the juice and canned (verb) the pickles.

2)   My grandmother put the juice in a bottle (noun) and the pickles in a can (noun).

3)   She microwaved (verb) her lunch.

4)   She heated her lunch in the microwave (noun).

5)   The doctor eyed (verb) my swollen eye (noun).

2.    Verb to Noun Conversion

Another productive form of conversion in English is verb to noun conversion. The following list provides examples of nouns converted from verbs :

Verb – Noun

a) to alert – alert

b) to attack – attack

c) to call – call

d) to clone – clone

e) to command – command

f) to cover – cover

g) to cry – cry

h) to experience – experience

i) to fear – fear

j) to feel – feel

For example :

1)   The guard alerted (verb) the general to the attack (noun).

2)   The enemy attacked (verb) before an alert (noun) could be sounded.

3)   Sometimes one just needs a good cry (noun).

4)   The baby cried (verb) all night.

5)   We need to increase (verb) our productivity to see an increase (noun) in profits.

Verb to noun conversion is also referred to as nominalization.

3.    Other Conversions

Conversion also occurs, although less frequently, to and from other grammatical forms.

For example :

1)   adjective to verb: green → to green (to make environmentally friendly)

2)   preposition to noun: up, down → the ups and downs of life

3)   conjunction to noun: if, and, but → no ifs, ands, or buts

4)   interjection to noun: ho ho ho → I love the ho ho hos of Christmastime.

References :

http://literaryterms.net/antonomasia/

http://www.britannica.com/art/antonomasia

http://www.englishlanguageterminology.org/antonomasia.htm

http://www.brighthubeducation.com/esl-lesson-plans/59339-teaching-word-formation-conversion/